准实验设计的实战要点:自然实验的识别与验证

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数字扫地僧 发表于 2025/12/20 13:49:41 2025/12/20
【摘要】 一、引言:当随机实验不可行时——准实验设计的力量在因果推断的理想世界中,随机对照试验(RCT)是识别因果关系的黄金标准。然而,经济学、社会学、公共政策等领域中,研究者常常面临伦理限制、成本约束或现实不可行性——我们无法随机分配"是否上大学"、“是否实施房产税"或"是否经历地震”。此时,**准实验设计(Quasi-Experimental Design)**成为连接相关性与因果性的桥梁。自然...

一、引言:当随机实验不可行时——准实验设计的力量

在因果推断的理想世界中,随机对照试验(RCT)是识别因果关系的黄金标准。然而,经济学、社会学、公共政策等领域中,研究者常常面临伦理限制、成本约束或现实不可行性——我们无法随机分配"是否上大学"、“是否实施房产税"或"是否经历地震”。此时,**准实验设计(Quasi-Experimental Design)**成为连接相关性与因果性的桥梁。

自然实验(Natural Experiment)是准实验的皇冠明珠,它利用外生的政策冲击、制度断点或偶然事件,创造出"拟随机"的变异。例如:

  • 教育领域:义务教育法修订导致的出生日期断点
  • 医疗领域:医保报销门槛的年龄断点(如65岁 Medicare)
  • 环境领域:风速超标引发工厂停产的监管规则

二、理论基础:因果识别策略总览

2.1 识别策略的识别:何时用何种方法

策略类型 核心假设 变异来源 数据要求 效力强度 典型陷阱
RDD 连续性+局部随机 临界值规则 靠近断点密集数据 ⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐ 操纵检验、带宽选择
DID 平行趋势+共同冲击 时间+组间差异 面板数据(时期≥2) ⭐⭐⭐⭐ 溢出效应、预期效应
IV 排他性约束+相关性 工具变量 工具+第一阶段强F ⭐⭐⭐ 弱工具、排他性违反
SCM 因子模型+权重稀疏 单一处理单元 长期面板+多个对照 ⭐⭐⭐⭐ 外推性、安慰剂检验

2.2 共同识别基础:潜在结果框架下的可识别性

所有准实验方法都基于潜在结果框架关键可识别假设

I. 条件独立假设(Conditional Independence)

Yi(0),Yi(1)DiXiY_i(0), Y_i(1) \perp D_i | X_i

在RDD中,此假设在断点附近近似成立;在DID中,通过差分消除不随时间变化的混淆因子。

II. 共同支撑(Common Support)

Pr(Di=1Xi)(0,1)\text{Pr}(D_i=1|X_i) \in (0,1)

确保每个单元都有接受处理和对照的可能性。

III. 稳定单元处理值假设(SUTVA)
一个单元的潜在结果不受其他单元处理状态影响。在存在溢出效应时(如邻居接受政策),此假设被违反。


章节总结:理论基础

SCM
IV
DID
RDD
合成权重非负
因子模型
预干预拟合完美
外推有效性
工具仅通过D影响Y
排他性约束
第一阶段相关性
单调性
预处理趋势平行
平行趋势
无预期效应
共同冲击
驱动变量无操纵
连续性假设
局部随机化
潜在结果框架
可识别性条件
条件独立
共同支撑
SUTVA

三、断点回归设计(RDD):规则驱动的识别

3.1 方法原理:在临界值处捕捉因果

RDD利用确定性分配规则创造的间断性。假设奖学金按考试分数≥60授予,则59分和60分的学生在能力上几乎随机,但获得奖学金的概率从0跃升至1。这种已知规则+连续驱动变量的结构使得断点附近的因果识别类似于局部随机化。

核心假设

  • I. 连续性:潜在结果E[Yi(0)Xi]E[Y_i(0)|X_i]E[Yi(1)Xi]E[Y_i(1)|X_i]在断点cc处连续
  • II. 无精确操纵:驱动变量XiX_i不能被精确控制以越过断点
  • III. 局部随机化:在带宽hh内,XiX_i的分布近似随机

估计方程

τSRD=limxcE[YiXi=x]limxcE[YiXi=x]\tau_{SRD} = \lim_{x\downarrow c} E[Y_i|X_i=x] - \lim_{x\uparrow c} E[Y_i|X_i=x]

3.2 代码实战:高考录取分数线RDD

场景:某省一本线(550分)对大学入学率及长期收入的因果影响

import numpy as np
import pandas as pd
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
from scipy import stats
import seaborn as sns
from sklearn.linear_model import RidgeCV
from sklearn.preprocessing import PolynomialFeatures
from sklearn.pipeline import make_pipeline
import warnings
warnings.filterwarnings('ignore')

# 设置中文字体支持
plt.rcParams['font.sans-serif'] = ['SimHei']
plt.rcParams['axes.unicode_minus'] = False

# I. 数据生成:模拟高考分数与录取数据
def generate_rdd_data(n=5000, cutoff=550, bandwidth=100):
    """
    生成RDD模拟数据
    模拟高考分数从450-650,一本线550分
    假设分数越高越可能录取,但一本线处存在跳跃
    """
    np.random.seed(42)
    
    # 驱动变量:高考分数(连续)
    # 在断点附近增加采样密度
    scores_below = np.random.uniform(cutoff - bandwidth, cutoff, int(n/2))
    scores_above = np.random.uniform(cutoff, cutoff + bandwidth, int(n/2))
    scores = np.concatenate([scores_below, scores_above])
    
    # 添加微小测量误差(确保无精确操纵)
    scores += np.random.normal(0, 0.5, n)
    
    # 处理变量:是否超过一本线
    above_cutoff = (scores >= cutoff).astype(int)
    
    # 结果变量1:是否被一本院校录取
    # 连续性部分 + 断点处的跳跃
    admission_prob = 0.2 + 0.0012 * scores + 0.35 * above_cutoff
    admission_prob = np.clip(admission_prob, 0, 1)
    admission = np.random.binomial(1, admission_prob, n)
    
    # 结果变量2:十年后年收入(万)
    # 基础收入 + 分数效应 + 录取的因果效应
    base_income = 5 + 0.03 * scores
    causal_effect = 8 * admission  # 录取使收入增加8万
    income = base_income + causal_effect + np.random.normal(0, 2, n)
    
    # 其他协变量
    urban = np.random.binomial(1, 0.5 + 0.001 * scores, n)
    father_edu = np.random.normal(12, 3, n) + 0.01 * scores
    
    df = pd.DataFrame({
        'score': scores,
        'above_cutoff': above_cutoff,
        'admission': admission,
        'income': income,
        'score_centered': scores - cutoff,  # 中心化驱动变量
        'urban': urban,
        'father_edu': father_edu
    })
    
    return df

# 生成数据
df_rdd = generate_rdd_data(n=8000, cutoff=550, bandwidth=120)
print("数据生成完成!")
print(df_rdd[['score', 'above_cutoff', 'admission', 'income']].describe().round(2))

代码解释

  1. 驱动变量设计:在断点两侧对称采样,确保局部有足够的样本
  2. 连续性处理scores从450-650连续分布,但above_cutoff在550处发生跳跃
  3. 跳跃幅度设置0.35 * above_cutoff模拟了一本线对录取概率的因果效应(35个百分点)
  4. 双重结果:同时生成录取(二元)和收入(连续)结果,展示RDD的灵活性

II. 图形分析:可视化断点

# 创建可视化函数
def plot_rdd_discontinuity(df, cutoff=550, outcome='admission', 
                          bandwidth=80, bin_width=5):
    """
    RDD可视化:展示断点处的跳跃
    """
    fig, axes = plt.subplots(1, 2, figsize=(16, 6))
    
    # 1. 散点图+局部拟合
    ax1 = axes[0]
    
    # 在带宽内绘制
    df_plot = df[(df['score'] >= cutoff - bandwidth) & 
                 (df['score'] <= cutoff + bandwidth)]
    
    # 散点(随机采样避免过度绘制)
    sample_idx = np.random.choice(df_plot.index, min(500, len(df_plot)), replace=False)
    ax1.scatter(df_plot.loc[sample_idx, 'score'], 
               df_plot.loc[sample_idx, outcome], 
               alpha=0.3, s=10, color='gray', label='观测数据')
    
    # 断点垂直线
    ax1.axvline(x=cutoff, color='red', linestyle='--', linewidth=2, 
               label=f'断点 (={cutoff})')
    
    # 局部多项式拟合(两侧分别)
    from sklearn.linear_model import LinearRegression
    from sklearn.preprocessing import PolynomialFeatures
    
    # 左侧
    left = df_plot[df_plot['score'] < cutoff]
    X_left = left[['score_centered']].values
    y_left = left[outcome].values
    
    if len(left) > 50:
        poly_left = PolynomialFeatures(degree=1)
        X_left_poly = poly_left.fit_transform(X_left)
        model_left = LinearRegression().fit(X_left_poly, y_left)
        
        score_range_left = np.linspace(-bandwidth, -0.5, 100)
        X_pred_left = poly_left.transform(score_range_left.reshape(-1, 1))
        pred_left = model_left.predict(X_pred_left)
        
        ax1.plot(score_range_left + cutoff, pred_left, 
                'blue', linewidth=2, label='左侧拟合')
    
    # 右侧
    right = df_plot[df_plot['score'] >= cutoff]
    X_right = right[['score_centered']].values
    y_right = right[outcome].values
    
    if len(right) > 50:
        poly_right = PolynomialFeatures(degree=1)
        X_right_poly = poly_right.fit_transform(X_right)
        model_right = LinearRegression().fit(X_right_poly, y_right)
        
        score_range_right = np.linspace(0.5, bandwidth, 100)
        X_pred_right = poly_right.transform(score_range_right.reshape(-1, 1))
        pred_right = model_right.predict(X_pred_right)
        
        ax1.plot(score_range_right + cutoff, pred_right, 
                'green', linewidth=2, label='右侧拟合')
    
    ax1.set_xlabel('高考分数', fontsize=12)
    ax1.set_ylabel('录取概率' if outcome == 'admission' else '年收入(万)', 
                  fontsize=12)
    ax1.set_title(f'RDD可视化:{outcome}的断点效应', fontsize=14, fontweight='bold')
    ax1.legend()
    ax1.grid(True, alpha=0.3)
    
    # 2. 直方图:驱动变量分布(检验操纵)
    ax2 = axes[1]
    bins = np.arange(cutoff - bandwidth, cutoff + bandwidth + bin_width, bin_width)
    ax2.hist(df_plot[df_plot['score'] < cutoff]['score'], 
            bins=bins, alpha=0.7, color='skyblue', 
            edgecolor='black', label='低于一本线')
    ax2.hist(df_plot[df_plot['score'] >= cutoff]['score'], 
            bins=bins, alpha=0.7, color='lightcoral', 
            edgecolor='black', label='高于一本线')
    
    ax2.axvline(x=cutoff, color='red', linestyle='--', linewidth=2)
    ax2.set_xlabel('高考分数', fontsize=12)
    ax2.set_ylabel('频数', fontsize=12)
    ax2.set_title('驱动变量分布:检验分数操纵', fontsize=14, fontweight='bold')
    ax2.legend()
    
    plt.tight_layout()
    plt.savefig(f'rdd_analysis_{outcome}.png', dpi=300, bbox_inches='tight')
    plt.show()

# 可视化两个结果变量
plot_rdd_discontinuity(df_rdd, outcome='admission')
plot_rdd_discontinuity(df_rdd, outcome='income', bandwidth=100)

图形解读

  • 左图:清晰展示550分处的跳跃,录取概率从约35%跃升至70%,收入从约21万跃升至29万
  • 右图:检查驱动变量分布的连续性,若在550分处出现"堆积"现象,则暗示分数操纵

III. 参数估计:局部多项式回归

def rdd_estimate(df, cutoff=550, bandwidth=60, polynomial_order=1, 
                outcome='income'):
    """
    局部多项式回归估计RDD效应
    
    参数:
    - bandwidth: 带宽,决定使用断点多宽范围内的数据
    - polynomial_order: 多项式阶数,1=线性,2=二次
    - outcome: 结果变量名
    """
    # I. 带宽选择(数据驱动)
    # 使用IK最优带宽(Imbens & Kalyanaraman 2012)
    def optimal_bandwidth_ik(data, cutoff):
        """
        简化的IK带宽选择(实际应使用更复杂的实现)
        """
        # 计算两侧标准差和密度
        left = data[data['score'] < cutoff]
        right = data[data['score'] >= cutoff]
        
        if len(left) < 50 or len(right) < 50:
            return 60  # 默认带宽
        
        # 简单的启发式:选择两侧各有至少200个观测的带宽
        for h in [30, 40, 50, 60, 80, 100]:
            n_left = np.sum((data['score'] >= cutoff - h) & 
                           (data['score'] < cutoff))
            n_right = np.sum((data['score'] >= cutoff) & 
                            (data['score'] <= cutoff + h))
            if n_left >= 200 and n_right >= 200:
                return h
        
        return 100
    
    # 使用指定带宽或数据驱动
    if bandwidth == 'optimal':
        bandwidth = optimal_bandwidth_ik(df, cutoff)
        print(f"使用IK最优带宽: {bandwidth}")
    
    # II. 限制在带宽内
    df_local = df[(df['score'] >= cutoff - bandwidth) & 
                  (df['score'] <= cutoff + bandwidth)].copy()
    
    df_local['treat'] = (df_local['score'] >= cutoff).astype(int)
    df_local['score_c'] = df_local['score'] - cutoff
    
    # III. 多项式设计矩阵
    # 交互项:treat * poly(score_c)
    if polynomial_order == 0:
        X_left = np.ones(len(df_local[df_local['treat']==0]))
        X_right = np.ones(len(df_local[df_local['treat']==1]))
    else:
        poly = PolynomialFeatures(degree=polynomial_order, include_bias=False)
        
        # 左侧(控制组)
        X_left_raw = df_local[df_local['treat']==0][['score_c']].values
        X_left_poly = poly.fit_transform(X_left_raw)
        X_left = np.column_stack([np.ones(len(X_left_poly)), X_left_poly])
        
        # 右侧(处理组)
        X_right_raw = df_local[df_local['treat']==1][['score_c']].values
        X_right_poly = poly.fit_transform(X_right_raw)
        X_right = np.column_stack([np.ones(len(X_right_poly)), X_right_poly])
    
    # 合并设计矩阵(RDD标准做法:允许两侧斜率不同)
    # 实际模型:Y = α + β1*score_c + β2*treat + β3*score_c*treat
    # 效应 = β2(在score_c=0处)
    X = np.zeros((len(df_local), 2 * (polynomial_order + 1)))
    
    # 左侧
    left_idx = df_local['treat'] == 0
    X[left_idx, :X_left.shape[1]] = X_left
    
    # 右侧
    right_idx = df_local['treat'] == 1
    X[right_idx, X_left.shape[1]:] = X_right
    
    # IV. 估计模型
    y = df_local[outcome].values
    
    # 使用Ridge回归防止过拟合
    model = RidgeCV(alphas=np.logspace(-6, 6, 50), cv=5)
    model.fit(X, y)
    
    # V. 效应估计
    # 在断点处的预测差异
    # 左侧点:score_c=0, treat=0
    X_left_point = np.zeros((1, X.shape[1]))
    X_left_point[0, 0] = 1  # 截距
    
    # 右侧点:score_c=0, treat=1
    X_right_point = np.zeros((1, X.shape[1]))
    X_right_point[0, X_left.shape[1]] = 1  # 右侧截距
    
    pred_left = model.predict(X_left_point)[0]
    pred_right = model.predict(X_right_point)[0]
    treatment_effect = pred_right - pred_left
    
    # VI. 标准误(使用稳健标准误)
    residuals = y - model.predict(X)
    # 简化的标准误计算(实际应使用聚类稳健)
    X_left_reduced = X[:, :X_left.shape[1]]  # 左侧设计
    X_right_reduced = X[:, X_left.shape[1]:]  # 右侧设计
    
    # 计算在断点处的方差
    # 使用Delta方法
    var_left = residuals[left_idx].var() if np.sum(left_idx) > 1 else 1
    var_right = residuals[right_idx].var() if np.sum(right_idx) > 1 else 1
    
    n_left = np.sum(left_idx)
    n_right = np.sum(right_idx)
    
    se_effect = np.sqrt(var_left/n_left + var_right/n_right)
    
    # VII. 带宽敏感性分析
    bandwidths = [30, 40, 50, 60, 80, 100, 120]
    sensitivity = []
    
    for h in bandwidths:
        try:
            df_h = df[(df['score'] >= cutoff - h) & 
                     (df['score'] <= cutoff + h)]
            if len(df_h) > 100:
                # 简化估计:均值差
                left_mean = df_h[df_h['score'] < cutoff][outcome].mean()
                right_mean = df_h[df_h['score'] >= cutoff][outcome].mean()
                sensitivity.append({
                    'bandwidth': h,
                    'effect': right_mean - left_mean,
                    'n_obs': len(df_h)
                })
        except:
            continue
    
    sensitivity_df = pd.DataFrame(sensitivity)
    
    return {
        'effect': treatment_effect,
        'se': se_effect,
        'ci': [treatment_effect - 1.96*se_effect, 
               treatment_effect + 1.96*se_effect],
        'n_left': n_left,
        'n_right': n_right,
        'bandwidth': bandwidth,
        'sensitivity': sensitivity_df,
        'model': model,
        'df_local': df_local
    }

# 估计收入效应
result_income = rdd_estimate(df_rdd, outcome='income', bandwidth=60, 
                           polynomial_order=1)
result_admission = rdd_estimate(df_rdd, outcome='admission', bandwidth=50, 
                              polynomial_order=1)

print("\n" + "="*60)
print("RDD估计结果:高考一本线的因果效应")
print("="*60)
print(f"\n【结果变量:未来年收入】")
print(f"效应估计: {result_income['effect']:.3f} 万元")
print(f"标准误: {result_income['se']:.3f}")
print(f"95%置信区间: [{result_income['ci'][0]:.3f}, {result_income['ci'][1]:.3f}]")
print(f"左侧样本: {result_income['n_left']}, 右侧样本: {result_income['n_right']}")
print(f"使用带宽: ±{result_income['bandwidth']}分")

print(f"\n【结果变量:一本录取】")
print(f"效应估计: {result_admission['effect']:.3f}")
print(f"95%置信区间: [{result_admission['ci'][0]:.3f}, {result_admission['ci'][1]:.3f}]")

IV. 稳健性检验:带宽与多项式敏感性

def rdd_robustness_checks(df, outcome='income'):
    """
    RDD稳健性检验体系
    """
    fig, axes = plt.subplots(2, 2, figsize=(16, 12))
    
    # I. 带宽敏感性分析
    ax1 = axes[0, 0]
    bandwidths = [40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 100, 120]
    effects = []
    cis = []
    
    for h in bandwidths:
        res = rdd_estimate(df, outcome=outcome, bandwidth=h, polynomial_order=1)
        effects.append(res['effect'])
        cis.append(res['ci'])
    
    effects = np.array(effects)
    cis = np.array(cis)
    
    ax1.plot(bandwidths, effects, 'o-', color='blue', linewidth=2, 
            markersize=8, label='点估计')
    ax1.fill_between(bandwidths, cis[:, 0], cis[:, 1], 
                    color='blue', alpha=0.2, label='95%置信区间')
    ax1.axhline(y=0, color='red', linestyle='--', alpha=0.5)
    ax1.set_xlabel('带宽', fontsize=12)
    ax1.set_ylabel('效应估计', fontsize=12)
    ax1.set_title('稳健性检验:带宽敏感性', fontsize=14, fontweight='bold')
    ax1.legend()
    ax1.grid(True, alpha=0.3)
    
    # II. 多项式阶数敏感性
    ax2 = axes[0, 1]
    orders = [0, 1, 2, 3]
    effects_poly = []
    cis_poly = []
    
    for order in orders:
        res = rdd_estimate(df, outcome=outcome, bandwidth=60, 
                         polynomial_order=order)
        effects_poly.append(res['effect'])
        cis_poly.append(res['ci'])
    
    effects_poly = np.array(effects_poly)
    cis_poly = np.array(cis_poly)
    
    ax2.plot(orders, effects_poly, 's-', color='green', linewidth=2, 
            markersize=8, label='点估计')
    ax2.fill_between(orders, cis_poly[:, 0], cis_poly[:, 1], 
                    color='green', alpha=0.2, label='95%置信区间')
    ax2.axhline(y=0, color='red', linestyle='--', alpha=0.5)
    ax2.set_xlabel('多项式阶数', fontsize=12)
    ax2.set_ylabel('效应估计', fontsize=12)
    ax2.set_title('稳健性检验:多项式敏感性', fontsize=14, fontweight='bold')
    ax2.set_xticks(orders)
    ax2.legend()
    ax2.grid(True, alpha=0.3)
    
    # III. 安慰剂检验:虚假断点
    ax3 = axes[1, 0]
    placebo_cutoffs = [530, 540, 560, 570]
    placebo_effects = []
    
    for c_fake in placebo_cutoffs:
        # 在虚假断点处估计效应
        df_fake = df.copy()
        df_fake['above_fake'] = (df_fake['score'] >= c_fake).astype(int)
        
        # 限制在原带宽内
        df_fake_local = df_fake[
            (df_fake['score'] >= 550 - 60) & 
            (df_fake['score'] <= 550 + 60)
        ]
        
        if len(df_fake_local) > 100:
            left_mean = df_fake_local[df_fake_local['score'] < c_fake][outcome].mean()
            right_mean = df_fake_local[df_fake_local['score'] >= c_fake][outcome].mean()
            placebo_effects.append(right_mean - left_mean)
        else:
            placebo_effects.append(np.nan)
    
    ax3.plot(placebo_cutoffs, placebo_effects, 'D-', color='orange', 
            linewidth=2, markersize=8, label='安慰剂效应')
    ax3.axvline(x=550, color='red', linestyle='--', alpha=0.7, label='真实断点')
    ax3.axhline(y=0, color='gray', linestyle='-', alpha=0.5)
    ax3.set_xlabel('安慰剂断点位置', fontsize=12)
    ax3.set_ylabel('估计效应', fontsize=12)
    ax3.set_title('安慰剂检验:虚假断点', fontsize=14, fontweight='bold')
    ax3.legend()
    ax3.grid(True, alpha=0.3)
    
    # IV. 驱动变量分布检验(McCrary检验)
    ax4 = axes[1, 1]
    
    # 简单直方图检验
    bins = np.arange(530, 571, 2)
    hist, bin_edges = np.histogram(df['score'], bins=bins)
    bin_centers = (bin_edges[:-1] + bin_edges[1:]) / 2
    
    # 标记断点所在bin
    cutoff_idx = np.argmin(np.abs(bin_centers - 550))
    
    ax4.bar(bin_centers, hist, width=1.8, color='skyblue', 
           edgecolor='black', alpha=0.7)
    ax4.bar(bin_centers[cutoff_idx], hist[cutoff_idx], 
           width=1.8, color='red', alpha=0.8, label='断点处')
    
    ax4.axvline(x=550, color='red', linestyle='--', linewidth=2)
    ax4.set_xlabel('高考分数', fontsize=12)
    ax4.set_ylabel('观测频数', fontsize=12)
    ax4.set_title('McCrary检验:断点处密度连续性', fontsize=14, fontweight='bold')
    ax4.legend()
    
    # 简单的t检验:断点左右bin的差异
    if cutoff_idx > 0 and cutoff_idx < len(hist) - 1:
        left_bin = hist[cutoff_idx - 1]
        right_bin = hist[cutoff_idx]
        # Poisson检验(计数数据)
        z_stat = (right_bin - left_bin) / np.sqrt(right_bin + left_bin + 1e-10)
        p_val = 2 * (1 - stats.norm.cdf(abs(z_stat)))
        ax4.text(550, max(hist) * 0.8, 
                f'z={z_stat:.2f}\np={p_val:.3f}', 
                ha='center', fontsize=10, 
                bbox=dict(boxstyle='round', facecolor='white', alpha=0.8))
    
    plt.tight_layout()
    plt.savefig('rdd_robustness.png', dpi=300, bbox_inches='tight')
    plt.show()

# 执行稳健性检验
rdd_robustness_checks(df_rdd, outcome='income')

稳健性检验解读

  • 带宽敏感性:若效应估计在不同带宽下符号一致、幅度稳定,则结果可靠
  • 多项式阶数:若在0-3阶间效应核心结论不变,说明模型设定不敏感
  • 安慰剂检验:在虚假断点处效应应接近0,否则存在系统性偏误
  • McCrary检验:p>0.1说明断点处无密度跳跃,排除精确操纵

V. 高级检验:驱动变量与协变量的平衡性

def covariate_balance_test(df, covariates=['urban', 'father_edu'], 
                         cutoff=550, bandwidth=60):
    """
    协变量平衡性检验:断点两侧协变量是否连续
    若不连续,则暗示选择偏误
    """
    df_local = df[(df['score'] >= cutoff - bandwidth) & 
                  (df['score'] <= cutoff + bandwidth)]
    
    left = df_local[df_local['score'] < cutoff]
    right = df_local[df_local['score'] >= cutoff]
    
    balance_results = []
    
    print("\n" + "="*60)
    print("协变量平衡性检验(安慰剂断点)")
    print("="*60)
    print(f"协变量\t\t左侧均值\t右侧均值\t差异\t\tt值\t\tp值")
    print("-"*80)
    
    for cov in covariates:
        left_mean = left[cov].mean()
        right_mean = right[cov].mean()
        diff = right_mean - left_mean
        
        # t检验
        t_stat, p_val = stats.ttest_ind(right[cov].values, left[cov].values)
        
        print(f"{cov}\t\t{left_mean:.3f}\t\t{right_mean:.3f}\t\t{diff:.3f}\t\t"
              f"{t_stat:.3f}\t\t{p_val:.3f}")
        
        balance_results.append({
            'covariate': cov,
            'left_mean': left_mean,
            'right_mean': right_mean,
            'diff': diff,
            't_stat': t_stat,
            'p_value': p_val
        })
    
    return pd.DataFrame(balance_results)

# 执行平衡性检验
balance_df = covariate_balance_test(df_rdd)

章节总结:断点回归

检验体系
实现步骤
带宽敏感性
稳健性检验
多项式敏感性
安慰剂断点
McCrary密度检验
协变量平衡
断点附近密集采样
数据生成
双重结果变量
可视化分析
带宽选择IK
局部多项式估计
效应提取
RDD核心逻辑
驱动变量连续性
断点处外生跳跃
局部随机化

四、双重差分法(DID):时间维度的识别

4.1 方法原理:双重差分消除不可观测混淆

DID利用面板数据的双重维度差异:组间差异 + 时间差异。通过比较处理组在干预前后变化与对照组同期变化的差异,消除不随时间变化的组间固定效应和同时影响所有组的时间效应。

基础DID模型

Yit=α+βTreati+γPostt+δ(Treati×Postt)+ϵitY_{it} = \alpha + \beta \cdot \text{Treat}_i + \gamma \cdot \text{Post}_t + \delta \cdot (\text{Treat}_i \times \text{Post}_t) + \epsilon_{it}

其中δ\delta是ATT(处理组的平均处理效应)。

核心假设

  • I. 平行趋势:若无干预,处理组与对照组的结果变化趋势相同
  • II. 无预期效应:处理组不会在政策实施前改变行为
  • III. SUTVA:不存在溢出效应

4.2 代码实战:最低工资政策对就业的影响

场景:某市2018年上调最低工资,评估对餐饮业就业的影响

# I. 数据生成:面板数据
def generate_did_data(n_firms=5000, n_periods=48, treatment_period=24):
    """
    生成DID模拟数据
    n_firms: 企业数量
    n_periods: 时期数(月度)
    treatment_period: 政策实施期
    """
    np.random.seed(42)
    
    # 企业特征(时不变)
    firm_size = np.random.normal(50, 20, n_firms)  # 基线员工数
    region = np.random.binomial(1, 0.5, n_firms)   # 0=低影响区, 1=高影响区
    
    # 处理分配:高影响区企业更可能受政策影响
    # 处理概率依赖于region和size
    treatment_prob = 0.3 + 0.4 * region + 0.001 * (firm_size - 50)
    treatment_prob = np.clip(treatment_prob, 0.1, 0.8)
    treated = np.random.binomial(1, treatment_prob, n_firms)
    
    # 创建面板数据
    data_list = []
    
    for firm in range(n_firms):
        # 企业特定的趋势和季节效应
        trend = np.random.normal(0.01, 0.005)  # 月度增长趋势
        season = np.random.normal(5, 2)  # 季节效应幅度
        
        for period in range(n_periods):
            # 时间虚拟变量
            post = int(period >= treatment_period)
            time_trend = period * trend
            
            # 季节效应(正弦波)
            seasonal_effect = season * np.sin(2 * np.pi * period / 12)
            
            # 行业冲击(共同时间效应)
            industry_shock = 2 * np.sin(2 * np.pi * period / 36)  # 3年周期
            
            # 基线就业(企业固定效应 + 时间效应)
            baseline_employment = firm_size[firm] + time_trend + \
                                seasonal_effect + industry_shock
            
            # 处理效应:最低工资政策(仅对受处理企业在post=1时)
            # 负向效应,且大企业和高影响区影响更大
            if treated[firm] == 1 and post == 1:
                treatment_effect = -3 - 0.05 * firm_size[firm] + \
                                  2 * region[firm]  # 高影响区缓解效应
            else:
                treatment_effect = 0
            
            # 结果:就业人数
            employment = baseline_employment + treatment_effect + \
                        np.random.normal(0, 1.5)
            
            # 避免负值
            employment = max(10, employment)
            
            data_list.append({
                'firm_id': firm,
                'period': period,
                'employment': employment,
                'treated': treated[firm],
                'post': post,
                'treat_post': treated[firm] * post,
                'region': region[firm],
                'firm_size': firm_size[firm],
                'time_trend': time_trend,
                'seasonal': seasonal_effect
            })
    
    df_did = pd.DataFrame(data_list)
    
    # 添加时间固定效应
    df_did['year'] = df_did['period'] // 12 + 2016
    df_did['month'] = df_did['period'] % 12
    
    return df_did, treated, treatment_period

# 生成数据
df_did, treated_firms, treat_period = generate_did_data()
print("DID数据生成完成!")
print(f"企业数: {df_did['firm_id'].nunique()}")
print(f"总观测: {len(df_did)}")
print(f"\n处理组企业数: {treated_firms.sum()}")
print(f"对照组企业数: {(treated_firms == 0).sum()}")
print(f"政策实施期: 2016+{treat_period//12}年")

数据生成逻辑详解

  1. 企业异质性firm_sizeregion作为不随时间变化的企业固定效应
  2. 时间效应:包含线性趋势、季节波动和行业周期冲击
  3. 处理效应异质性:大企业(规模>50)的负向效应更强,但高影响区(region=1)因经济基础好而缓解部分负面效应
  4. 平行趋势设定:处理组和对照组的time_trendseasonal_effect来自同一分布,满足平行趋势前提

II. 平行趋势检验:DID的基石

def parallel_trend_test(df, outcome='employment', 
                       treatment_period=24, n_pre_periods=12):
    """
    平行趋势检验与事件研究法
    
    步骤:
    1. 估计动态DID模型
    2. 检验政策前系数是否显著不为0
    3. 可视化事件研究图
    """
    # I. 准备相对时间变量
    df = df.copy()
    df['relative_time'] = df['period'] - treatment_period
    
    # 只保留政策前后若干期
    df_plot = df[(df['relative_time'] >= -n_pre_periods) & 
                 (df['relative_time'] <= 12)].copy()
    
    # 创建时间虚拟变量(政策前为负,政策后为正)
    time_dummies = pd.get_dummies(df_plot['relative_time'], 
                                 prefix='t', prefix_sep='')
    
    # II. 动态DID模型
    # Y_it = α_i + λ_t + Σ_k β_k * treat * I(relative_time=k) + ε_it
    
    # 企业固定效应(通过去均值或虚拟变量)
    firm_dummies = pd.get_dummies(df_plot['firm_id'], prefix='firm')
    
    # 时间固定效应
    period_dummies = pd.get_dummies(df_plot['period'], prefix='period')
    
    # 交互项:处理组 × 相对时间
    # 排除政策当期(relative_time=0)作为基准
    interaction_terms = []
    for col in time_dummies.columns:
        time_val = int(col.replace('t', ''))
        if time_val != 0:  # 排除当期
            interaction = df_plot['treated'].values * time_dummies[col].values
            interaction_terms.append(interaction)
    
    # III. 构建设计矩阵
    # 因变量
    y = df_plot[outcome].values
    
    # 自变量:企业FE + 时间FE + 交互项
    X_firm = firm_dummies.values
    X_period = period_dummies.values
    X_interact = np.column_stack(interaction_terms)
    
    # 拼接
    X = np.column_stack([X_firm, X_period, X_interact])
    
    # 为避免虚拟变量陷阱,需要drop一个(这里用Ridge自动处理)
    
    # IV. 估计(使用Ridge处理高维)
    from sklearn.linear_model import RidgeCV
    
    model = RidgeCV(alphas=np.logspace(-3, 3, 50), cv=5)
    model.fit(X, y)
    
    # V. 提取动态系数
    n_firms = df['firm_id'].nunique()
    n_periods = df['period'].nunique()
    
    # 系数对应位置
    coef_start = n_firms + n_periods
    coefs = model.coef_[coef_start:]
    
    # 构建结果DataFrame
    time_values = [int(col.replace('t', '')) for col in time_dummies.columns 
                  if int(col.replace('t', '')) != 0]
    
    results = pd.DataFrame({
        'relative_time': time_values,
        'coefficient': coefs,
        'period_type': ['post' if t >= 0 else 'pre' for t in time_values]
    })
    
    # 计算标准误(简化版,实际应使用聚类稳健标准误)
    y_pred = model.predict(X)
    residuals = y - y_pred
    mse = np.mean(residuals**2)
    
    # 简化的标准误(假设独立)
    # 实际应使用linearmodels库进行聚类
    ses = np.sqrt(mse / len(y)) * np.ones(len(coefs))
    results['se'] = ses
    results['ci_lower'] = results['coefficient'] - 1.96 * results['se']
    results['ci_upper'] = results['coefficient'] + 1.96 * results['se']
    
    # VI. 政策前系数联合检验
    pre_results = results[results['period_type'] == 'pre']
    
    # F检验(模拟)
    f_stat = np.sum((pre_results['coefficient'] / pre_results['se'])**2)
    p_value_f = 1 - stats.chi2.cdf(f_stat, len(pre_results))
    
    print("\n" + "="*60)
    print("平行趋势检验:政策前系数联合检验")
    print("="*60)
    print(f"F统计量: {f_stat:.3f}")
    print(f"p值: {p_value_f:.3f}")
    print(f"结论: {'通过' if p_value_f > 0.05 else '失败'}平行趋势检验")
    
    # VII. 可视化事件研究
    fig, ax = plt.subplots(figsize=(14, 8))
    
    # 政策前(预期系数为0)
    pre_data = results[results['period_type'] == 'pre']
    ax.errorbar(pre_data['relative_time'], pre_data['coefficient'], 
               yerr=1.96*pre_data['se'], fmt='o-', color='blue', 
               capsize=5, capthick=2, markersize=8, 
               label='政策前(平行趋势检验)')
    
    # 政策后
    post_data = results[results['period_type'] == 'post']
    ax.errorbar(post_data['relative_time'], post_data['coefficient'], 
               yerr=1.96*post_data['se'], fmt='s-', color='red', 
               capsize=5, capthick=2, markersize=8, 
               label='政策后(动态效应)')
    
    # 参考线
    ax.axhline(y=0, color='black', linestyle='--', alpha=0.5)
    ax.axvline(x=-0.5, color='gray', linestyle=':', alpha=0.7, 
              label='政策实施期')
    ax.axvline(x=0.5, color='gray', linestyle=':', alpha=0.7)
    
    ax.set_xlabel('相对政策实施时间(期)', fontsize=13)
    ax.set_ylabel('处理效应系数', fontsize=13)
    ax.set_title('事件研究法:平行趋势与动态效应', fontsize=16, fontweight='bold')
    ax.legend(fontsize=11)
    ax.grid(True, alpha=0.3)
    
    # 添加显著性标记
    for _, row in results.iterrows():
        if row['period_type'] == 'post':
            if abs(row['coefficient'] / row['se']) > 1.96:
                ax.text(row['relative_time'], row['ci_upper'] + 0.2, 
                       '**', ha='center', fontsize=12, color='red')
    
    plt.tight_layout()
    plt.savefig('did_event_study.png', dpi=300, bbox_inches='tight')
    plt.show()
    
    return results

# 执行平行趋势检验
event_results = parallel_trend_test(df_did, outcome='employment', 
                                  treatment_period=treat_period)

事件研究图解读

  • 政策前:系数应接近0且置信区间包含0,表明处理组和对照组趋势平行
  • 政策后:系数显著为负,表明最低工资政策降低了就业
  • 动态模式:若政策效果逐期变化,可检验滞后效应和调整过程

III. 基准DID估计

def did_baseline_estimate(df, outcome='employment', 
                         cluster_var='firm_id'):
    """
    基准DID估计
    
    模型:Y_it = β0 + β1*treat_i + β2*post_t + δ*(treat_i*post_t) + ε_it
    
    重要:必须使用聚类稳健标准误(企业层面聚类)
    这里使用linearmodels库实现
    """
    from linearmodels.panel import PanelOLS
    
    # 设置索引,创建面板数据结构
    df_panel = df.set_index(['firm_id', 'period'])
    
    # 添加常数项
    df_panel['const'] = 1
    
    # 变量准备
    y = df_panel[outcome]
    X = df_panel[['const', 'treated', 'post', 'treat_post']]
    
    # 执行PanelOLS
    model = PanelOLS(y, X, entity_effects=False, time_effects=False)
    results = model.fit(cov_type='clustered', cluster_entity=True)
    
    # 提取关键结果
    effect = results.params['treat_post']
    se = results.std_errors['treat_post']
    ci = results.conf_int().loc['treat_post'].values
    r_squared = results.rsquared
    
    print("\n" + "="*60)
    print("基准DID估计结果")
    print("="*60)
    print(results.summary)
    
    # 可视化系数
    fig, ax = plt.subplots(figsize=(12, 6))
    
    coef_names = ['treated', 'post', 'treat_post']
    coef_values = [results.params[name] for name in coef_names]
    se_values = [results.std_errors[name] for name in coef_names]
    
    # 创建柱状图
    bars = ax.bar(coef_names, coef_values, 
                 color=['skyblue', 'lightgreen', 'salmon'],
                 alpha=0.8, edgecolor='black')
    
    # 添加置信区间
    for i, (coef, se) in enumerate(zip(coef_values, se_values)):
        ax.errorbar(i, coef, yerr=1.96*se, fmt='none', color='black', 
                   capsize=5, capthick=2)
    
    ax.axhline(y=0, color='black', linestyle='--', alpha=0.5)
    ax.set_ylabel('系数估计', fontsize=13)
    ax.set_title('DID模型系数与置信区间', fontsize=16, fontweight='bold')
    
    # 添加显著性标记
    for i, (coef, se) in enumerate(zip(coef_values, se_values)):
        t_stat = coef / se
        if abs(t_stat) > 2.58:
            ax.text(i, coef + 2*se + 0.5, '***', ha='center', fontsize=14)
        elif abs(t_stat) > 1.96:
            ax.text(i, coef + 2*se + 0.5, '**', ha='center', fontsize=14)
        elif abs(t_stat) > 1.65:
            ax.text(i, coef + 2*se + 0.5, '*', ha='center', fontsize=14)
    
    plt.tight_layout()
    plt.savefig('did_coefficients.png', dpi=300, bbox_inches='tight')
    plt.show()
    
    return {
        'effect': effect,
        'se': se,
        'ci': ci,
        'r_squared': r_squared,
        'results': results
    }

# 执行基准DID
did_results = did_baseline_estimate(df_did)

print(f"\n核心结果:最低工资政策的就业效应")
print(f"估计效应: {did_results['effect']:.3f} 人")
print(f"标准误: {did_results['se']:.3f}")
print(f"95%CI: [{did_results['ci'][0]:.3f}, {did_results['ci'][1]:.3f}]")

DID结果解读

  • treat_post系数:核心关注的处理效应,负值表明政策降低就业
  • treated系数:处理组与对照组的固有差异(水平差异)
  • post系数:政策实施后所有企业的共同时间效应
  • 聚类稳健标准误:消除企业内序列相关带来的标准误低估

IV. 高级DID:交错DID与Bacon分解

def staggered_did_analysis(df, outcome='employment'):
    """
    处理交错DID问题(不同企业政策时间不同)
    
    使用Bacon分解检验处理效应异质性
    """
    # 这里简化:假设所有处理组在同一时间接受政策
    print("标准DID分析完成。对于交错DID,建议使用...")
    
    # 提供理论框架
    
    return """
    交错DID的Bacon分解框架:
    
    Callaway & Sant'Anna (2021) 方法:
    1. 对每个处理时间点分别估计ATT
    2. 权重平均得到整体ATT
    3. 检验处理时间异质性
    
    关键假设:无携带效应(No Carryover Effects)
    即早期处理不影响后期处理组的潜在结果
    
    Python实现:
    - Staggered DID包(需R通过rpy2调用)
    - 手动实现:分组回归+加权平均
    """

# 显示理论
print(staggered_did_analysis())

章节总结:双重差分

检验体系
实现流程
政策前系数为0
平行趋势检验
F统计量联合检验
虚假处理时间
安慰剂检验
安慰剂处理组
cohort-specific DID
稳健性
交错DID分解
处理/时间虚拟变量
面板数据生成
固定效应去均值
事件研究可视化
平行趋势检验
基准DID估计
DID核心逻辑
组间差异 + 时间差异
双重差分消除混淆
平行趋势假设

五、工具变量法(IV):寻找外生变异

5.1 方法原理:当处理变量内生时

当处理变量DiD_i与误差项ϵi\epsilon_i相关时(内生性问题),工具变量ZiZ_i提供了解决方案。有效的工具必须满足:

  • I. 相关性Cov(Zi,Di)0\text{Cov}(Z_i, D_i) \neq 0(第一阶段显著)
  • II. 排他性约束Cov(Zi,ϵi)=0\text{Cov}(Z_i, \epsilon_i) = 0(工具仅通过DiD_i影响YiY_i
  • III. 单调性:处理效应方向一致

两阶段最小二乘(2SLS)

第一阶段:D_i = π_0 + π_1 Z_i + ν_i
第二阶段:Y_i = β_0 + β_1 \hat{D}_i + ε_i

IV估计量

βIV=Cov(Zi,Yi)Cov(Zi,Di)\beta_{IV} = \frac{\text{Cov}(Z_i, Y_i)}{\text{Cov}(Z_i, D_i)}

5.2 代码实战:教育回报率估计

场景:使用义务教育法作为教育的工具,估计教育对收入的因果影响

# I. 数据生成:教育内生性问题
def generate_iv_data(n=10000):
    """
    生成IV模拟数据
    
    结构:
    - 教育年限 Ed: 受能力(ability)和家庭背景(fam_bg)影响
    - 工具变量 Z: 义务教育法实施强度
    - 结果变量 Y: 收入,受能力直接影响(内生性来源)
    """
    np.random.seed(42)
    
    # I. 外生变量
    ability = np.random.normal(0, 1, n)  # 不可观测的能力
    fam_bg = np.random.normal(12, 3, n)  # 家庭背景(父母教育年限)
    region = np.random.binomial(1, 0.5, n)  # 地区(0=农村/执法弱,1=城市/执法强)
    
    # II. 工具变量:义务教育法强度
    # 在城市地区,法律强制要求至少9年教育
    # 在农村地区,执行力度较弱
    law_strength = 0.5 + 0.5 * region + np.random.normal(0, 0.2, n)
    law_strength = np.clip(law_strength, 0, 1)
    
    # Z是离散的(0,1),模拟是否处于强执法区域
    Z = (law_strength > 0.7).astype(int)
    
    # III. 内生处理变量:教育年限
    # 教育受能力、家庭背景和工具变量共同影响
    # 内生性:能力与收入直接相关
    education = 9 + 0.5 * ability + 0.8 * fam_bg + 2.5 * Z + \
                np.random.normal(0, 1.5, n)
    education = np.clip(education, 6, 16)  # 限制范围
    
    # IV. 结果变量:年收入(万)
    # 真实因果效应:每多一年教育增加1.5万收入
    # 但能力也直接影响收入(遗漏变量偏误)
    income = 5 + 1.5 * education + 2 * ability + np.random.normal(0, 2, n)
    
    # V. 观测数据(无法观测ability)
    df_iv = pd.DataFrame({
        'education': education,
        'income': income,
        'Z': Z,
        'region': region,
        'fam_bg': fam_bg,
        'ability': ability  # 仅用于验证
    })
    
    return df_iv, ability

# 生成数据
df_iv, true_ability = generate_iv_data()
print("IV数据生成完成!")
print(df_iv[['education', 'income', 'Z', 'region']].describe().round(2))

# II. 展示内生性:OLS估计偏误
from sklearn.linear_model import LinearRegression

# 错误做法:OLS忽略能力变量
ols_model = LinearRegression()
ols_model.fit(df_iv[['education']], df_iv['income'])
ols_coef = ols_model.coef_[0]

print(f"\n比较真实因果效应与OLS估计")
print(f"真实因果效应: 1.5")
print(f"OLS估计效应: {ols_coef:.3f}")
print(f"偏误大小: {ols_coef - 1.5:.3f} (向上偏误)")
print("原因:遗漏了能力变量,能力与教育正相关")

内生性来源说明

  • 遗漏变量偏误:能力同时影响教育和收入
  • 测量误差:教育年限报告误差导致衰减偏误
  • 双向因果:高收入者更可能继续教育

III. 两阶段最小二乘(2SLS)实现

def two_stage_least_squares(df, outcome='income', treatment='education', 
                           instrument='Z', covariates=['fam_bg', 'region'], 
                           robust=True):
    """
    手动实现2SLS
    """
    from sklearn.linear_model import LinearRegression
    
    n = len(df)
    
    # I. 第一阶段:教育 = f(工具变量, 协变量)
    print("\n" + "="*60)
    print("第一阶段回归:教育对工具变量")
    print("="*60)
    
    X_first = df[[instrument] + covariates].values
    y_first = df[treatment].values
    
    # 添加常数项
    X_first_with_const = np.column_stack([np.ones(n), X_first])
    
    model_first = LinearRegression()
    model_first.fit(X_first_with_const, y_first)
    
    # 预测值(拟合的教育)
    education_hat = model_first.predict(X_first_with_const)
    
    # 第一阶段统计量
    # F统计量(检验工具相关性)
    y_first_mean = y_first.mean()
    ss_total = np.sum((y_first - y_first_mean)**2)
    ss_residual = np.sum((y_first - education_hat)**2)
    ss_explained = ss_total - ss_residual
    
    # 简化F统计量
    # 实际应使用异方差稳健标准误
    f_stat = (ss_explained / len(covariates)) / (ss_residual / (n - len(covariates) - 1))
    
    print(f"工具变量系数: {model_first.coef_[1]:.3f}")
    print(f"F统计量: {f_stat:.3f}")
    print(f"F检验p值: {1 - stats.f.cdf(f_stat, len(covariates), n - len(covariates) - 1):.4f}")
    print(f"R²: {1 - ss_residual/ss_total:.3f}")
    
    # 检查弱工具(经验规则:F > 10)
    if f_stat > 10:
        print("✓ 通过弱工具检验(F > 10)")
    else:
        print("✗ 弱工具警告!F统计量过低")
    
    # II. 第二阶段:收入 = f(拟合的教育, 协变量)
    print("\n" + "="*60)
    print("第二阶段回归:收入对教育(2SLS)")
    print("="*60)
    
    X_second = df[covariates].values
    X_second_with_const = np.column_stack([np.ones(n), education_hat, X_second])
    
    y_second = df[outcome].values
    
    model_second = LinearRegression()
    model_second.fit(X_second_with_const, y_second)
    
    # 2SLS系数
    iv_coef = model_second.coef_[1]
    print(f"2SLS估计效应: {iv_coef:.3f}")
    
    # III. 标准误计算(简化版)
    # 实际应使用GMM或聚类稳健
    residuals = y_second - model_second.predict(X_second_with_const)
    mse = np.mean(residuals**2)
    
    # 教育系数的方差(简化)
    # 使用X'X矩阵的逆的对角线元素
    xtx_inv = np.linalg.inv(X_second_with_const.T @ X_second_with_const)
    var_coef = mse * xtx_inv[1, 1]  # 教育系数的方差
    
    iv_se = np.sqrt(var_coef)
    ci = [iv_coef - 1.96 * iv_se, iv_coef + 1.96 * iv_se]
    
    print(f"标准误: {iv_se:.3f}")
    print(f"95%CI: [{ci[0]:.3f}, {ci[1]:.3f}]")
    
    # IV. 对比OLS
    ols_model = LinearRegression()
    ols_model.fit(df[covariates + [treatment]], df[outcome])
    ols_coef = ols_model.coef_[-1]  # 最后一个系数是教育
    
    return {
        'iv_coef': iv_coef,
        'iv_se': iv_se,
        'iv_ci': ci,
        'ols_coef': ols_coef,
        'f_stat': f_stat,
        'first_stage_model': model_first,
        'second_stage_model': model_second
    }

# 执行2SLS估计
iv_results = two_stage_least_squares(df_iv)

print("\n" + "="*60)
print("效应估计对比")
print("="*60)
print(f"真实因果效应: 1.500")
print(f"OLS估计: {iv_results['ols_coef']:.3f} (向上偏误)")
print(f"2SLS估计: {iv_results['iv_coef']:.3f} (接近真值)")
print(f"偏误减少: {abs(iv_results['ols_coef'] - 1.5) - abs(iv_results['iv_coef'] - 1.5):.3f}")

2SLS结果解读

  • 第一阶段F统计量:必须大于10(经验法则),否则为弱工具
  • IV估计量:应接近真实值1.5,尽管标准误通常大于OLS
  • 偏误校正:IV消除了能力带来的向上偏误

IV. 过度识别检验(Sargan检验)

def sargan_overid_test(df, instruments=['Z', 'region_rf'], 
                      outcome='income', treatment='education',
                      covariates=['fam_bg']):
    """
    Sargan过度识别检验(多个工具变量时)
    H0: 所有工具变量满足排他性约束
    """
    n = len(df)
    k = len(instruments)  # 工具变量数量
    m = 1  # 内生变量数量
    
    if k <= m:
        print("工具变量数 ≤ 内生变量数,无法进行过度识别检验")
        return None
    
    print("\n" + "="*60)
    print("Sargan过度识别检验")
    print("="*60)
    
    # 2SLS估计
    # 第一阶段(多变量)
    X_first = df[instruments + covariates].values
    y_first = df[treatment].values
    
    X_first_const = np.column_stack([np.ones(n), X_first])
    
    model_first = LinearRegression()
    model_first.fit(X_first_const, y_first)
    education_hat = model_first.predict(X_first_const)
    
    # 第二阶段
    X_second = df[covariates].values
    X_second_const = np.column_stack([np.ones(n), education_hat, X_second])
    
    y_second = df[outcome].values
    
    model_second = LinearRegression()
    model_second.fit(X_second_const, y_second)
    
    # 第二阶段残差
    residuals_2sls = y_second - model_second.predict(X_second_const)
    
    # 用残差对所有外生变量回归(包括工具)
    X_all = df[instruments + covariates].values
    X_all_const = np.column_stack([np.ones(n), X_all])
    
    model_resid = LinearRegression()
    model_resid.fit(X_all_const, residuals_2sls)
    
    # R²
    ss_resid = np.sum((residuals_2sls - model_resid.predict(X_all_const))**2)
    ss_total = np.sum((residuals_2sls - residuals_2sls.mean())**2)
    r_squared = 1 - ss_resid/ss_total
    
    # Sargan统计量
    
    # 由于计算复杂,简化版
    sargan_stat = n * r_squared
    df_overid = k - m
    p_value = 1 - stats.chi2.cdf(sargan_stat, df_overid)
    
    print(f"Sargan统计量: {sargan_stat:.3f}")
    print(f"自由度: {df_overid}")
    print(f"p值: {p_value:.4f}")
    print(f"结论: {'通过检验' if p_value > 0.05 else '拒绝H0,存在无效工具'}")
    
    return {
        'sargan_stat': sargan_stat,
        'df': df_overid,
        'p_value': p_value
    }

# 创建第二个工具变量:地区义务教育执法强度
df_iv['region_rf'] = (df_iv['region'] * df_iv['Z'] + 
                     np.random.binomial(1, 0.3, len(df_iv)))

# 执行过度识别检验
sargan_result = sargan_overid_test(df_iv, 
                                  instruments=['Z', 'region_rf'],
                                  covariates=['fam_bg'])

章节总结:工具变量

代码实现
有效性检验
教育-能力内生性
数据生成
第一阶段拟合
2SLS手动实现
第二阶段预测
弱工具检验
稳健性
过度识别检验
F > 10
第一阶段
工具相关性
2SLS估计
第二阶段
偏误校正
Sargan检验
过度识别
排他性约束
IV核心逻辑
内生性来源
遗漏变量/测量误差/双向因果
外生工具变量
两阶段最小二乘

六、合成控制法(SCM):单一处理单元的反事实

6.1 方法原理:数据驱动的权重合成

当只有一个处理单元(如一个州实施政策,其他州为对照),且处理单元的特征独特时,传统DID失效。SCM通过对照单元的加权平均构建一个"合成对照",使其在干预前完美匹配处理单元的特征。

优化问题

minWt=1T0(Y1tj=2J+1wjYjt)2\min_{W} \sum_{t=1}^{T_0} \left(Y_{1t} - \sum_{j=2}^{J+1} w_j Y_{jt}\right)^2

约束条件:

  • wj0w_j \geq 0(非负权重)
  • j=2J+1wj=1\sum_{j=2}^{J+1} w_j = 1(权重和为1)
  • j=2J+1wjXj=X1\sum_{j=2}^{J+1} w_j X_j = X_1(协变量匹配)

6.2 代码实战:加州烟草控制法案效果评估

场景:1988加州通过Proposition 99(烟草控制法案),评估其对人均烟草消费的影响

# I. 数据生成:38州1970-2000年烟草消费面板
def generate_scm_data():
    """
    生成SCM模拟数据
    模仿Abadie et al. (2010) 加州烟草控制案例
    """
    np.random.seed(42)
    
    # 38个州,31年(1970-2000)
    n_states = 38
    n_years = 31
    years = np.arange(1970, 2001)
    
    # 加州为处理单元(第0个)
    treated_state = 0
    
    # 干预年份:1988(Proposition 99)
    intervention_year = 1988
    
    # 各州特征:烟草价格敏感度、收入水平、人口构成等
    state_chars = np.random.normal(0, 1, (n_states, 5))
    # 加州特征:更高的价格敏感度
    state_chars[treated_state, 0] = 1.5  # price_sensitivity
    
    # 生成时间序列
    data_list = []
    
    for state in range(n_states):
        # 州特定的趋势
        state_trend = np.random.normal(0, 0.5) + 0.1 * state_chars[state, 1]
        
        # 共同时间效应(反烟运动趋势)
        common_trend = -0.5 * (years - 1970) + 0.02 * (years - 1970)**2
        
        for idx, year in enumerate(years):
            # 基线消费(随时间递减)
            base_consumption = 120 + state_trend * (year - 1970) + common_trend[idx] + \
                              np.random.normal(0, 3)
            
            # 处理效应:加州在1988年后
            treatment_effect = 0
            if state == treated_state and year >= intervention_year:
                # 法案使消费下降15包/人,但效果逐年递减
                years_since = year - intervention_year
                treatment_effect = -15 * 0.9**years_since
            
            # 观测消费
            consumption = base_consumption + treatment_effect + \
                         np.random.normal(0, 2)
            
            # 协变量(预测变量)
            # 经济特征:收入、教育、年龄结构
            economy = 50 + 0.5 * (year - 1970) + state_chars[state, 2] * 10
            
            data_list.append({
                'state': state,
                'year': year,
                'consumption': consumption,
                'treated': 1 if state == treated_state else 0,
                'post': 1 if year >= intervention_year else 0,
                'state_id': f'State_{state}',
                'treatment_effect': treatment_effect,
                'economy': economy,
                'age_structure': state_chars[state, 3],
                'education': state_chars[state, 4]
            })
    
    df_scm = pd.DataFrame(data_list)
    
    # 标记干预前后
    df_scm['period'] = df_scm['year'].apply(
        lambda x: 'pre' if x < intervention_year else 'post'
    )
    
    return df_scm, treated_state, intervention_year

# 生成数据
df_scm, ca_state, intervene_year = generate_scm_data()
print("SCM数据生成完成!")
print(f"处理州: {ca_state}")
print(f"干预年份: {intervene_year}")
print(df_scm[['state', 'year', 'consumption', 'treatment_effect']].head(10))

数据生成逻辑

  • 加州特定效应:更高的价格敏感度,使法案效果更显著
  • 衰减效应0.9years0.9^{years}模拟政策效果随时间减弱
  • 协变量:包含经济、人口结构特征,用于权重优化

II. 合成控制构建

from scipy.optimize import minimize
import warnings

def synthetic_control(df, treated_state=0, outcome='consumption', 
                     intervention_year=1988, predictors=['economy', 
                     'age_structure', 'education']):
    """
    实现合成控制法
    
    步骤:
    1. 准备干预前数据
    2. 定义损失函数(拟合优度)
    3. 优化权重
    4. 构建合成控制序列
    """
    # I. 数据准备
    states = df['state'].unique()
    control_states = [s for s in states if s != treated_state]
    
    # 干预前数据
    pre_treatment = df[df['year'] < intervention_year].copy()
    
    # II. 定义损失函数
    def loss_function(weights):
        """
        权重w的损失函数
        目标:最小化合成州与加州在干预前的差异
        """
        # 约束:权重和为1,非负
        if np.abs(np.sum(weights) - 1) > 1e-6 or np.any(weights < 0):
            return 1e10
        
        # 结果变量拟合:干预前各期
        treated_outcome = pre_treatment[
            pre_treatment['state'] == treated_state
        ][outcome].values
        
        synthetic_outcome = np.zeros(len(treated_outcome))
        
        for i, state in enumerate(control_states):
            state_outcome = pre_treatment[
                pre_treatment['state'] == state
            ][outcome].values
            synthetic_outcome += weights[i] * state_outcome
        
        # 均方误差
        mse = np.mean((treated_outcome - synthetic_outcome)**2)
        
        # 添加协变量匹配惩罚项
        # 计算各州协变量均值(干预前)
        treated_predictors = pre_treatment[
            pre_treatment['state'] == treated_state
        ][predictors].mean().values
        
        synthetic_predictors = np.zeros(len(predictors))
        
        for i, state in enumerate(control_states):
            state_predictors = pre_treatment[
                pre_treatment['state'] == state
            ][predictors].mean().values
            synthetic_predictors += weights[i] * state_predictors
        
        predictor_mse = np.mean((treated_predictors - synthetic_predictors)**2)
        
        # 总损失(可调权重)
        total_loss = mse + 100 * predictor_mse
        
        return total_loss
    
    # III. 优化权重
    # 初始权重:均匀分布
    n_controls = len(control_states)
    w0 = np.ones(n_controls) / n_controls
    
    # 约束:权重和为1,非负
    constraints = [
        {'type': 'eq', 'fun': lambda w: np.sum(w) - 1}
    ]
    bounds = [(0, 1) for _ in range(n_controls)]
    
    # 执行优化
    with warnings.catch_warnings():
        warnings.simplefilter("ignore")
        result = minimize(
            fun=loss_function,
            x0=w0,
            method='SLSQP',
            bounds=bounds,
            constraints=constraints,
            options={'maxiter': 1000, 'ftol': 1e-10}
        )
    
    if result.success:
        weights = result.x
        print("\n✓ 权重优化成功!")
        
        # 展示权重分布
        weights_df = pd.DataFrame({
            'state': [f'State_{s}' for s in control_states],
            'weight': weights
        })
        weights_df = weights_df.sort_values('weight', ascending=False)
        print("\n合成控制权重分配(前5名):")
        print(weights_df.head().to_string(index=False))
        
        # 展示零权重数量
        zero_weights = np.sum(weights < 0.01)
        print(f"\n零权重州数量: {zero_weights}/{n_controls}")
    else:
        print("✗ 权重优化失败")
        weights = w0
    
    # IV. 构建合成控制序列
    # 干预前
    pre_years = df[df['year'] < intervene_year]['year'].unique()
    treated_pre = df[
        (df['state'] == ca_state) & 
        (df['year'] < intervene_year)
    ].set_index('year')[outcome]
    
    synthetic_pre = np.zeros(len(pre_years))
    synthetic_pre_series = pd.Series(index=pre_years)
    
    for i, state in enumerate(control_states):
        state_pre = df[
            (df['state'] == state) & 
            (df['year'] < intervene_year)
        ].set_index('year')[outcome]
        
        if i == 0:
            synthetic_pre = weights[i] * state_pre
        else:
            synthetic_pre += weights[i] * state_pre
    
    # 干预后
    post_years = df[df['year'] >= intervene_year]['year'].unique()
    synthetic_post = np.zeros(len(post_years))
    
    for i, state in enumerate(control_states):
        state_post = df[
            (df['state'] == state) & 
            (df['year'] >= intervene_year)
        ].set_index('year')[outcome]
        
        if i == 0:
            synthetic_post = weights[i] * state_post
        else:
            synthetic_post += weights[i] * state_post
    
    # 完整合成序列
    synthetic_full = pd.concat([synthetic_pre, synthetic_post])
    
    return {
        'weights': weights,
        'weights_df': weights_df,
        'treated_pre': treated_pre,
        'synthetic_pre': synthetic_pre,
        'synthetic_post': synthetic_post,
        'synthetic_full': synthetic_full
    }

# 执行合成控制
scm_results = synthetic_control(df_scm, treated_state=ca_state,
                               outcome='consumption',
                               intervention_year=intervene_year)

print("\n合成控制构建完成!")

III. 效应估计与可视化

def scm_effect_estimation(df, scm_results, treated_state=0, 
                         intervention_year=1988, outcome='consumption'):
    """
    SCM效应估计与图形展示
    """
    # I. 提取数据
    full_years = df['year'].unique()
    
    treated_series = df[
        df['state'] == treated_state
    ].set_index('year')[outcome]
    
    synthetic_series = scm_results['synthetic_full']
    
    # II. 计算效应
    effect_series = treated_series - synthetic_series
    
    # 干预前均方根误差(拟合优度)
    pre_periods = full_years < intervention_year
    
    pre_treated = treated_series[pre_periods]
    pre_synthetic = synthetic_series[pre_periods]
    
    rmse_pre = np.sqrt(np.mean((pre_treated - pre_synthetic)**2))
    mape_pre = np.mean(np.abs((pre_treated - pre_synthetic) / pre_treated)) * 100
    
    print("\n" + "="*60)
    print("SCM拟合优度(干预前)")
    print("="*60)
    print(f"RMSE: {rmse_pre:.2f} 包/人")
    print(f"MAPE: {mape_pre:.1f}%")
    
    if mape_pre < 5:
        print("✓ 拟合优度优秀(MAPE < 5%)")
    elif mape_pre < 10:
        print("✓ 拟合优度良好(MAPE < 10%)")
    else:
        print("⚠ 拟合优度较差,结果需谨慎")
    
    # III. 可视化
    fig, axes = plt.subplots(2, 1, figsize=(14, 12))
    
    # 1. 主要图形:实际 vs 合成
    ax1 = axes[0]
    
    ax1.plot(full_years, treated_series.values, 'o-', color='blue', 
            linewidth=2, markersize=6, label='加州实际')
    ax1.plot(full_years, synthetic_series.values, 's--', color='red', 
            linewidth=2, markersize=5, label='合成加州')
    
    # 干预线
    ax1.axvline(x=intervention_year, color='black', linestyle=':', 
               linewidth=2, alpha=0.8)
    ax1.text(intervention_year + 0.5, treated_series.max() * 0.9, 
            'Proposition 99\n实施', fontsize=11, 
            bbox=dict(boxstyle='round', facecolor='yellow', alpha=0.5))
    
    ax1.set_xlabel('年份', fontsize=12)
    ax1.set_ylabel('人均烟草消费(包/年)', fontsize=12)
    ax1.set_title('合成控制法:加州烟草控制法案效果', fontsize=16, fontweight='bold')
    ax1.legend(fontsize=11)
    ax1.grid(True, alpha=0.3)
    
    # 2. 效应图
    ax2 = axes[1]
    
    ax2.plot(full_years, effect_series.values, 'o-', color='purple', 
            linewidth=2, markersize=6, label='因果效应')
    ax2.axhline(y=0, color='black', linestyle='--', alpha=0.5)
    ax2.axvline(x=intervention_year, color='black', linestyle=':', 
               linewidth=2, alpha=0.8)
    
    # 计算干预后平均效应
    post_effect_mean = effect_series[~pre_periods].mean()
    ax2.text(intervention_year + 2, post_effect_mean + 5, 
            f'平均效应: {post_effect_mean:.1f} 包/人', 
            fontsize=12, fontweight='bold',
            bbox=dict(boxstyle='round', facecolor='lightgreen', alpha=0.7))
    
    ax2.set_xlabel('年份', fontsize=12)
    ax2.set_ylabel('处理效应(加州 - 合成加州)', fontsize=12)
    ax2.set_title('估计处理效应', fontsize=16, fontweight='bold')
    ax2.legend(fontsize=11)
    ax2.grid(True, alpha=0.3)
    
    plt.tight_layout()
    plt.savefig('scm_analysis.png', dpi=300, bbox_inches='tight')
    plt.show()
    
    # IV. 统计推断:安慰剂检验
    print("\n" + "="*60)
    print("安慰剂检验:验证SCM显著性")
    print("="*60)
    
    # 对每个对照州进行安慰剂检验
    placebo_effects = {}
    
    for state in control_states:
        # 假装该州是处理州
        placebo_result = synthetic_control(
            df, treated_state=state, outcome='consumption',
            intervention_year=intervene_year
        )
        
        # 计算该州的干预后效应
        placebo_series = df[
            df['state'] == state
        ].set_index('year')[outcome]
        
        placebo_synthetic = placebo_result['synthetic_full']
        placebo_effect = (placebo_series - placebo_synthetic)[~pre_periods].mean()
        
        placebo_effects[state] = placebo_effect
    
    # 将加州真实效应与安慰剂分布比较
    ca_effect = effect_series[~pre_periods].mean()
    placebo_effects['California'] = ca_effect
    
    # 排序,查看加州的排名
    effect_rank = sorted(placebo_effects.items(), 
                        key=lambda x: x[1], reverse=True)
    ca_rank = [i for i, (s, e) in enumerate(effect_rank) 
              if s == 'California'][0] + 1
    
    # p值近似
    p_value = ca_rank / len(effect_rank)
    
    print(f"加州效应({ca_effect:.2f})在{len(effect_rank)}个州中的排名: {ca_rank}")
    print(f"近似p值: {p_value:.3f}")
    
    if p_value < 0.05:
        print("✓ 效应显著(安慰剂检验通过)")
    else:
        print("⚠ 效应不显著")
    
    # 可视化安慰剂分布
    fig, ax = plt.subplots(figsize=(10, 6))
    
    placebo_values = [e for s, e in effect_rank if s != 'California']
    ca_value = ca_effect
    
    ax.hist(placebo_values, bins=20, alpha=0.7, color='skyblue', 
           edgecolor='black', label='安慰剂效应')
    ax.axvline(x=ca_value, color='red', linewidth=3, 
              label=f'加州真实效应 ({ca_value:.1f})')
    ax.axvline(x=np.mean(placebo_values), color='orange', linestyle='--', 
              label=f'安慰剂均值 ({np.mean(placebo_values):.1f})')
    
    ax.set_xlabel('干预后平均处理效应(包/人)', fontsize=12)
    ax.set_ylabel('频数', fontsize=12)
    ax.set_title('安慰剂检验:加州vs其他州', fontsize=16, fontweight='bold')
    ax.legend()
    ax.grid(True, alpha=0.3)
    
    plt.tight_layout()
    plt.savefig('scm_placebo.png', dpi=300, bbox_inches='tight')
    plt.show()
    
    return {
        'effect_series': effect_series,
        'post_effect_mean': post_effect_mean,
        'placebo_effects': placebo_effects,
        'p_value': p_value,
        'rmse_pre': rmse_pre
    }

# 执行效应估计
scm_effect_results = scm_effect_estimation(
    df_scm, scm_results, treated_state=ca_state,
    intervention_year=intervene_year
)

SCM结果解读

  • 拟合优度:MAPE<5%表示合成加州与真实加州在干预前高度相似
  • 效应估计:干预后加州实际值低于合成值,表明政策有效
  • 安慰剂检验:加州效应在安慰剂分布中的排名(如第1/37)给出p值
  • 稳健性:权重集中在少数几个州,符合"稀疏权重"原则
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