【学术论文写作】02 Tone and Diction

今天的学习任务是接着昨天课程的“tone and diction”部分，具体如下图所示:

1. Choosing Correct Diction
上节课谈到了好的写作需要有大的词汇量，但是仅仅有词汇量是不够的，还需要可以精确把握词的含义。通常英语中，来自拉丁语或希腊语的单词被认为更正式，而以盎格鲁-撒克逊语为根的单词则被认为不太正式。 （一本好的字典会告诉您单词的起源及其含义。）类似地，单个较长的单词被认为比简短的单词或单词短语更为正式，如下图所示：

2. 12 Errors in Diction and Usage
与大多数语言一样，英语一直在变化和发展。 但是，我们做出的选择需要遵循当时的形式/正确性规则。 否则，将导致用词错误。用词错误有两个主要来源：

① 选择错误的单词。 之所以会发生这种情况，是因为同音异义词（听起来相似但拼写不同的词）之间的混淆，或者是因为该词的含义不被理解。

②对于正式/非正式选择不当。当要求使用标准语言或更正式的语言时（反之亦然），选择口语或更不正式的口头语言。 在学术写作中，通常期望正式的口头表达。 在商务写作中，这通常取决于情况以及目标读者。

常见的12中错误：

Among / between (Tip: Among involves more than two; between involves only two)
Colloquial: Discussions between our group members were often very lively.
Formal: Discussions among our group members were often very lively.
Everyday/Every day (Tip: Everyday is an adjective meaning ‘typical’ or ‘not special’; every day specifies a habit)
Incorrect: We buy lunch there everyday.
Correct: We buy lunch there every day.
Correct: Our manager told us to wear everyday clothes to the Saturday meeting.
Loan/lend vs. Borrow. In some English dialects, the word “borrow” is substituted for “loan” or “lend,” as in, “Can you borrow me that book?” In Standard English, the person providing an item lends/loans it, but the person receiving it borrows it.
Colloquial: Borrow me that pen, please.
Formal: Lend me that pen, please.
Formal: Loan me that pen, please.
Based off of
Colloquial: Based off of that information, we can move ahead with the plan.
Formal: Based on that information, we can move ahead with the plan.
Kids/Mom/Dad (tip: When referring to family members or children, use the formal style in academic writing.)
Colloquial: His mom and dad took all of the kids to the park.
Formal: His mother and father took all of the children to the park.
You guys
Colloquial: I hope you guys can join me at the restaurant.
Formal: I hope all of you can join me at the restaurant.
Infer / imply (Tip: To infer is an act of thinking; to imply is an act of saying something.)
Incorrect: I saw your memo about a noon meeting. Are you inferring that we should have lunch together?
Correct: I saw your memo about a noon meeting. Are you implying that we should have lunch together?
It’s / its (Remember that it’s always means it is)
Incorrect: The committee has reached it’s goals this year.
Correct: The committee has reached its goals this year.
Less than / fewer than (Tip: Use less than only with uncountable nouns in formal writing.)
Colloquial: There are less people in the store today than yesterday.
Formal: There are fewer people in the store today than yesterday.
Like / as (Tip: Use as when comparing actions; uselike when comparing things.)
Colloquial: Alan wants to write a new essay, just like Sarah does.
Formal: Alan wants to write a new essay, just as Sarah does.
Like / maybe (Tip: Avoid using like and maybe when estimating; use approximately, perhaps, or about instead.)
Colloquial: There were like thirty people at my birthday party.
Formal: There were approximately thirty people at my birthday party.
They’re / their / there (You’re / your) (Tip: remember that they’re always means they are, and you’re always means you are)
Incorrect: Do you know if their going to the party?
Correct: Do you know if they're going to the party?
Incorrect: You’re lunch is on the counter.
Correct: Your lunch is on the counter.
Incorrect: What is there address?
Correct: What is their address?
3. Connotations
滥用词语的另一种原因是不理解其含义。 含义是单词可以保留的概念或感觉，它是单词的主要含义（或含义）之外的内容。 而附加含义在本质上通常是文化上或情感上的，因此如果您仅依靠字典，则可能很难理解它们。

例如，查看这四个词，它们的含义或含义相同： cheap, frugal, miserly, economical 。 这些词中的两个具有正面含义，另外两个具有负面含义。  All of them mean the quality of saving money by spending very little. (Answer:cheap andmiserly are negative, meaning someone who is unreasonable in their spending habits;frugal andeconomicalhave positive associations, meaning someone who is careful about spending money). 

再比如不同动物的引申含义不同。

当您在日记中的词汇表上做笔记时，如果在带正含义的单词旁边加上+（加号），在带负含义的单词旁边加上-（减号）会很有帮助。 当然，有些单词是中性的，既不是消极的也不是积极的。  

可以参考网站：https://www.english-corpora.org/

4. Self-check: Negative or positive?
https://sentence.yourdictionary.com/abandon 可以在这个网站上测试自己是否对单词的正/负含义有正确的理解。

比如我之前一直以为“tall” 是有正向含义的，主观认为了它带有高大的正向，但其实它是一个中性词汇。

5. What is tone?
语气是文章背后的情感基调，它可能是 ' happy or serious,humorous or sad, threatening, formal, optimistic.

语气在你的写作中很重要，因为它可以让您的读者知道关于你描述东西的态度。请记住学术写作通常会尝试保持中立或客观的语气。但是，如果您要撰写个人叙述，论文，观点文章，您想要选择一种特定的语气才能真正获得您的讯息传达。可以尝试练习用不同的语气描述同一物体。

6. Practice: Tone and Diction
 

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